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1920-1929 1920January 1920 - Through the Treaty of Versailles the League of Nations charter, known as the Covenant, is empowered. The League of Nations' Covenant establishes the Mandate system, designed as a compromise between those in favor of self-government and colonialism to govern territories stripped from the Central Powers. The territories put under mandate are deemed unable to govern themselves and will serve an apprenticeship under a Western power.League of Nations Mandates January 1920
- After free elections for the Ottoman Parliament saw Nationalists
win a majority seat, a reassembled parliament embraces Mustafa
Kemal's National Pact. February 1920 - 10,000 Armenians
are massacred by Mustfa Kemal's forces in the Cilician town of
Marash. March 1920 - At the 2nd Syrian Congress the assembly proclaims Syria's independence "within its natural boundries, including Palestine," and name Emir Faisal its king. Both France and Britain are asked to pull out of the western (Lebanon) and southern (Palestine) parts of Syria. Neither the French or British recognize the congress' proclamation, but offers to recognize Faisal as king if he met certain criteria. Faisal, under pressure from the congress, refuses the French and British offer and declines to appear at the San Remo Peace Conference unless his independence is recognized. March 1920 - The British and French seize Istanbul in response to Mustafa Kemal's growing power. Many political and nationalist activists are arrested and deported. The two allies hope this is a death blow to Kemal's nationalist movement. April 1920
- At the San Remo Conference the Allied Supreme Council awards
a mandate to France for Syria and Lebanon, and Separate mandates
are awarded to Britain for Palestine (inlcuding Transjordan) and
Iraq. The British mandate for Palestine includes the words of
the Balfour Declaration that provided for a Jewish national home.
April 1920
- Sultan Mehmet VI dissolves the Turkish Parliament. In response,
Mustafa Kemal opens the Grand National Assembly in Ankara with
himself as president. The Assembly becomes Turkey's effective
government with Ankara becoming its new capital. April 1920 - Greek troops land and occupy Smyrna on the West coast of Anatolia to prevent the city from being occupied by Italian forces. June 1920
- Following Palestinian riots that killed many Jewish settlers
in early 1920, the Jewish underground self-defense organization,
Haganah, is organized by Vladimir Jobotinsky, Eliahu Golumb and
others. June 1920
- Prime Minister Lloyd George, in an address in the House of Commons,
proclaims that under the League of Nations' mandate Britain has
an obligation in Mesopotamia to install "an independent nation,
subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance
by a mandatory until such time as she is able to stand alone."
The British plan is to consolidate the Mesopotamian velayets of
Mosul, Bagdhad and Basra into one nation, Iraq, despite the wide
differences between a population of Shi'ite and Sunni muslims
who mistrust one another greatly, and a Kurdish population in
the north who wants nothing to do with being a part of the new
nation. June 1920
- Stoked by pro-Hashemite agitators, open revolt in Iraq against
British rule breaks out among the mid-Euphrates tribes (predominantly
Shi'ite). The revolt, led by Ayatollah Muhammad Taqi al-Shirazi,
calls for Iraqi independence under a Hasemite rulertook and takes
place in mostly rural areas of Iraq where British military presence
is minimal. The revolt lasts for 3 months in which time 400 British
and between 6,000 and 9,000 Iraqis are killed. The British replace
High Commissioner of Iraq Arnold Wilson with the more experienced
Sir Percy Cox. July 1920 - After several Arab attacks on French positions on the Lebanon border French commander-in-chief General Gourand issues Faisal an ultimatum that would allow French forces to occupy Aleppo, Homs, Hama and the Bekaa plain. Faisal had no choice to accept. By late July French forces occupy Damascus despite resistance by Faisal's poorly equipped troops. Faisal is exiled and is received by the British. July 1920
- Herbert Samuel is appointed as the first High Commissioner of
Palestine. He sets quotas for Jewish immigration to try and appease
Arab concerns.
August
1920 - The Treaty of Sèvres is signed by Mehmet VI, accepting
the Allied terms metted out at the San Remo Conference. The treaty
dissolves the Ottoman Empire and the Turks must abandon all claims
to Arab lands. The kingdom of Hejaz is recognized as independent.
Smyrna and its surrounding area is to be administered by the Greeks
for 5 years as well as the surrender of Eastern Thrace and most
of the Aegean Islands to the Greeks. The Turks recognize the British
annexation of Cyprus, the British protectorate over Egypt, and
the French protectorate over Morocco and Tunis. The rights over
the Dodecanese Islands are ceded to Italy. September 1920
- The French establish Greater Lebanon with its present-day borders
and its capital in Beirut. The French increased Lebanon's territory
at the expense of Syria. The new Lebanon combined Sunni and Shi'ite
muslims from the coastal plain, who preferred to be part of Arab
Syria, with the large Maronite Christian Mount Lebanon. The Maronites
welcomed the French mandate and were generally favored over the
muslim sects. This will prove to be the basis for future conflict.
December
1920 - The General Federation of Hebrew Workers in the Land
of Israel is formed with David Ben-Gurion as its Secretary-General. 1921January 1921 - The Greeks, who had been advancing eastward towards Ankara, are defeated by Turkish forces led by Colonel Ismet Bey at the Battle of Inönü.First Battle of Inönü February 1921
- With British help General Reza Khan engineers a coup in Tehran.
Khan becomes commander-in-chief of the army with journalist Sayyid
Ziya al-Din al-Tabataba'i being named prime minister. February 1921 - The Soviets pull all troops out of Persia and a Soviet-Persian Treaty of Friendship is agreed upon. The Soviets cancel all debts, renounce all concessions in Persia, and remove troops from the Azarbayjan Soviet Socialist Republic from Persia's Gilan Province (although they claim they had nothing to do with that). The Russians may have done this because the British control of the souther section of the country had diminished. February
1921 - The British, after negotiations with Sa'ad Zaghlul,
the nationalist leader, announce they are willing to accept the
eradication of the protectorate as the basis for negotiation of
a treaty with Egypt. March
1921 - At the Cairo Conference, headed by newly appointed
Secretary of State for the colonies Winston Churchill, Emir Faisal
is deemed the most suitable candidate to assume the throne of
Iraq. Faisal had been campaigning for the throne ever since he
was deposed in Syria. The British feel placing Faisal as king
of Iraq would be most beneficial to them, both with the Arab countries
and financially. Prime Minister Lloyd George gives Churchill the
go ahead and orders Sir Percy Cox back to Mesopotamia to begin
the process of crowning Faisal as king. Faisal is told to return
to Mecca and consult his father while also agreeing to the League
of Nations mandate and not to use his future throne to insitgate
anti-French sentiment in Syria. The issue of Transjordan is also
discussed. After much deliberation, the conference warily endorses
Emir Abdullah as Transjordan's ruler. Abdullah, who had been pushed
out of the Mesopotamian throne by his younger brother Faisal,
had moved to Amman in Transjordan earlier in the year with a small
army and began Hashemite and anti-French propoganda in hopes he
would entrench himself to the point that the British could no
longer ignore him. Transjordan is made its own entity but still
technically part of the Palestine mandate. Transjordan is exempt
from the area designated for the Jewish national home. The British
approach King Hussein of Hejaz about signing a treaty of protection
against Ibn-Saud's potential advances in return for his acceptance
of their policies in Palestine. Hussein stubbornly refuses. July 1921 - A renewed Greek offensive pushes Turkish forces east towards Ankara. The Grand National Assembly grants Mustapha Kemal full dictatorial powers and he assumes command of the army. Kemal's leadership rekindles nationalist morale as the Turks prepare to defend Ankara from the Greeks. August 1921 - Faisal is crowned as king of Iraq. August-September
1921 - In a battle that rages for more than 20 days, Turkish
forces withstand Greek assaults at the Battle of Sankarya River.
The victory boosts the morale of the nationalist movement greatly.
Mustapha Kemal is made a field-marshal and the title of ghazi,
warrior of Islam.
1922January 1922 - The British appoint Hajj Amin al-Husseini as president of the Supreme Muslim Council in Palestine that controls the waqf and powers of employment over all Muslim officials throughout Palestine.The Grand Mufti Hajj Amin al-Husseini March 1922 - The British end their protectorate over Egypt, granting nominal independence subject to "four reserved points." These points are the security of imperial communications within Egypt, the defense of Egypt against foreign attack, the protection of foreign interests and personnel, and the administration of the Sudan. Sultan Ahmad Fuad is named King Fuad I. According to the declaration, the government of the king is to handle bilateral negotiations until it is time for the government and king to convene agreements with the Egyptian government. June 1922
- A White Paper by Winston Churchill documents that East Palestine
will be known as Transjordan, and that the Balfour Declaration
only promises a Jewish homeland in Palestine. July 1922
- The League of Nations officially ratifies the mandate system.
Iraq, Palestine and Transjordan to Great Britain, and Syria and
Lebanon to France. August 1922
- The League of Nations' Order in Council sets forth the groundwork
for the governance of Palestine. August 1922
- Led by Mustapha Kemal, Turkish troops crush the southern flank
of the Greeks and drive the Greek army to Smyrna. The Turks then
turn towards Constantinople where British troops were stationed
to defend the Turkish government. To avoid a Anglo-Turkish war
the British propose a ceasefire which ends the conflict between
the Turks and Greeks. October 1922 - The Armistice of Mundanya is signed by the Greeks and Turks. The treaty calls for the Greeks to leave eastern Thrace and an eventual withdrawal of Allied troops from Constantinople. October 1922
- A treaty of alliance between Iraq and Great Britain is signed.
The treaty reiterates many of the provisions laid out by the League
of Nation's mandate. Iraq pledged to respect religious freedom
and the rights of foreigners, as well as cooperate with the League
of Nations. Britain promises to prepare Iraq for membership in
the League of Nations as well as offer advice on "important" matters.
The treaty is slated to last for 20 years. The Iraqi Constituent
Assembly strongly opposes the treaty as does the British public.
The Assembly initially balks at approving the treaty. November
1922 - The sultanate of Turkey is abolished by the Grand National
Assembly, and Sultan Mehmet VI goes into exile on Malta. His cousin,
Abdülmecid, is named caliph. The Kemalist government goes into
negotiations with the Allied powers in Lausanne, Switzerland. 1923April 1923 - Due to public opinion in both Britain and Iraq, a protocol to the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty is signed, reducing the term of the treaty from 20 to 4 years.May 1923 - Transjordan is officially recognized as an "independent consitutional state" by the British. King Abdullah will rule with British tutelage as Transjordan prepares for independence.
July 1923 - The Treaty of Lausanne, the only treaty negotiated
by a defeated power in World War One on equal terms, is finalized
between the Entente Powers and Turkey. The treaty replaces the
Treaty of Sèvres and formalizes Turkey's present-day borders with
two exceptions - the Mosul area and Hatay Province, which includes
the port of Alexandretta. Turkey assumes 40% of Ottoman debt and
is required to maintain low tariffs on imports from the signatories
until 1929. The treaty also reaffirms the equality of non-Muslim
nationals. Greece and Turkey agree on the exchange of minorities. October 1923
- Under the leadership of Lt. Colonol F.G. Peake the Al Jeish
al Arabi, or "Arab Army" is formed in Transjordan. It will become
better known as the Arab Legion.
1924March 1924 - Mustapha Kemal, president of the Republic of Turkey, formally eliminates the caliphate. The aging King Hussein of the Hejaz foolishly assumes the title of "caliph" himself. This enrages many in the Arab world, especially Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud's fanatical Ikhwan of the Najd. Hussein's foolish proclamation plus the British decision to end the subsidy they had been paying ibn Saud leave nothing to stop ibn Saud's forces from invading the Hejaz.Ikhwan Caliph June 1924 - The Constituent Assembly of Iraq, after demanding complete independence, finally ratifies the Anglo-Iraqi Agreement after the British warn that if they did not the matter would be referred to the League of Nations. July 1924 - After a month of discussing a draft constitution written by a constitutional committee the Constituent Assembly adopts Iraq's first constitution. August 1924
- Arab forces from the Wahhabi movement dedicated to wresting
control of the Arabian peninsula from Hashemite control, attack
villages south of Amman in Transjordan. King Abdullah is forced
to turn to the British who utilize RAF planes and army armored
cars to repulse the attacks. September 1924
- Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud, Sultan of Najd, invades King Hussein's
Hejaz. Hussein's forces are ill-prepared and incapable of repulsing
the attack. The city of at-Ta'if falls and 300 people are massacred.
October 1924
- King Hussein of Hejaz, despite wanting to fight to the end,
is convinced to abdicate his throne and goes into exile in Cyprus.
His son, Ali, assumes rule and retreats with his forces to Jeddah
in the wake of Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud's invasion. Mecca falls to
ibn Saud shortly thereafter and he declares himself guardian of
the Holy Places. 1925January 1925 - The French unite the provinces of Damascus and Aleppo to create the new state of Syria. February-April
1925 - Kurds living in eastern Turkey rebel against the Kemalist
government because of oppressive religious policies. The Kurds
demand autonomy. April 1925 - The Turkish and French governments agree on the autonomy of Alexandretta. March 1925 - The Iraqi constituion, known as The Organic Law, goes into effect. It provides for a constitutional monarchy, a parliamentary government, and a bicameral legislature composed of an elected House of Representatives and an appointed Senate. July 1925
- The Druze, mountain tribesmen living in Syria and Lebanon, begin
a revolt against the French intervention into their affairs. The
French had arrested several Druze leaders they had lured to Damascus
for a conference and exiled them. The revolt is led by Sultan
Pasha al Atrash. The rebels take much of the countryside and then
begin to move against the larger cities. They take the Druze capital
of Sawayda in August. October 1925
- With news of the Druze Rebellion spreading, Syrian nationalists
in Damascus urge the Druze leader, Sultan Pasha al Atrash to take
Damascus. As Druze forces approach the city widespread revolt
erupts, forcing the French to leave the city. Shortly after the
withdrawl, the French begin a 48-hour bombing of the city, causing
a vast amount of damage and killing upwards of 5,000 Syrians.
The French retake Damascus and the rebellion begins to lose steam. December 1925
- Medina and Jeddah, the last Hashemite stronghold in the Hejaz,
falls to Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud's forces. Ibn Saud forces Sharif
Ali to abdicate. Ibn Saud becomes ruler of the Hejaz except for
a small piece in the northwest that includes the port of Aqaba
that the British secure for the Transjordan mandate. The British
deem it essential that Transjordan has an outlet to the sea. Ibn
Saud takes care to keep his tribesmen under control in the Holy
Places in order to give the rest of the Muslim world no reason
to worry about his rule of the Hejaz. December 1925
- The League of Nations grants the Mosul region to Iraq despite
the predominantly Kurdish population's wish to become autonomous.
1926January 1926 - Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud becomes King of Hejaz. January
1926 - An Anglo-Iraqi Treaty extends their relationship for
25 years or until Iraq joins the League of Nations. This was signed
after the League recommends Britain's role in Iraq should be extended
if Iraq receives the Mosul region. May
1926 - The Republic of Lebanon is recognized by the French
and a constitution for Lebanon, based on the French Third Republic,
is written, giving the Lebanese limited self-government. It will
ammended several times in the future. Christians hold the majority
in the unicameral Parliament. 1927May 1927 - The British and Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud sign the Treaty of Jeddah in which Britain recognizes the independence of ibn Saud's kingdom. It also resolves ibn Saud's claim to Aqaba. The Soviets, in an attempt to gain a foothold on the Arabian peninsula, were the first to recognize the kingdom in 1926.July 1927 - The British and Egyptians begin negotiations on an Anglo-Egyptian Draft Treaty that states British military occupation will end in 10 years. August 1927
- Sa'ad Zaghlul, the leader of the Egyptian Wafd Party, dies.
Zaghlul is replaced by Mustafa al-Nahhas. October 1927
- The largest oil field in the world so far is discovered in Kirkuk,
Iraq. December 1927 - An Anglo-Iraqi Treaty stating that Britain will recognize Iraqi independence and sponsor it for admission to the League of Nations in 1932 in return for three air bases in Iraq and British training of the Iraqi army is proposed.
1928February 1928 - In a treaty signed with Great Britain, Transjordan becomes nominally independent although the British still maintain a military presence and retain some financial control over the kingdom.Jordan, Hashemite Kingdom TransJordan March 1928
- The Egyptians reject the British Draft Treaty that states that
British occupation will end in 10 years, saying that it is not
compatible with Egyptian independence. In the same month, the
Muslim Brotherhood is founded by Hasan al-Banna. The Brotherhood
aimed at social and moral reform through Islam. May 1928 - In Persia, a new judicial system based on the French model is established. The Persian government abolishes the capitulations and establish minimum tariff rates. The British and other governments accept the new system. June 1928
- The French government allows Syrian elections for a Constituent
Assembly to draft a constitution. The majority of the members
were Syrian Nationalists and the drafted constitution, which is
pan-Syrianist, does not recognize the French mandate. The French
High Commissioner rejects the constitutional draft and prorogues
the assembly.
1929August 1929 - After years of negotiations, the British and Egyptian governments reach a final settlement. The British occupation will end and be replaced by an Anglo-Egyptian military alliance with British troops stationed at key points along the Suez Canal. Egypt will become a member of the League of Nations and the Sudan will resume its status as an Anglo-Egyptian condominium.British and Egyptian Imperialism of Sudan August 1929
- Widespread anti-Jewish riots rip through Palestine over Jewish
prayer at the Western "Wailing" wall in Jerusalem. The riots start
in Jerusalem where a muslim crowd destroys Jewish ritual objects
at the Wall. The rioting soon spreads throughout Palestine, leading
to the deaths of 133 Jews, inculding the massacre of 64 Zionists
in Hebron. British forces quell the rioting which also leads to
116 Arab deaths.
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